Oatmeal is ground oat groats (i.e., oat-meal, cf. cornmeal, peasemeal, etc.), or a porridge made from oats (also called oatmeal cereal or stirabout, in Ireland). Oatmeal can also be ground oat, steel-cut oats, crushed oats, or rolled oats.

The oat grains are de-husked by impact, then heated and cooled to stabilize the “Oat groats”, the seed inside the husk. The process of heating produces a nutty flavour to the oats.These oat groats may be milled to produce fine, medium or coarse oatmeal. Rolled oats are steamed and flattened whole oat groats. Steel cut oats may be small and broken groats from the de-husking process, these may be steamed and flattened to produce smaller rolled oats. Quick-cooking rolled oats (quick oats) are cut into small pieces before being steamed and rolled. Instant oatmeal is pre-cooked and dried, usually with sweetener and flavouring added. Both types of rolled oats may be eaten uncooked as in muesli or may be cooked to make porridge. It is also used as an ingredient in oatmeal cookies and oat cakes, or as an accent, as in the topping on many oat bran breads and the coating on Caboc cheese. Oatmeal is also sometimes porridge with the bran or fibrous husk as well as the oat kernel or groat. In some countries rolled oats are eaten raw with milk and sugar or raisins. Oatmeal is also used as a thickening agent in savoury Arabic/Egyptian thick meat plus vegetable soups.

Breakfast cereal health benefits

There has been increasing interest in oatmeal in recent years because of its health benefits. Daily consumption of a bowl of oatmeal can lower blood cholesterol, because of its soluble fibre content. After it was reported that oats can help lower cholesterol, an “oat bran craze” swept the U.S. in the late 1980s, peaking in 1989. The food craze was short-lived and faded by the early 1990s. The popularity of oatmeal and other oat products increased again after the January 1997 decision by the Food and Drug Administration that food with a lot of oat bran or rolled oats can carry a label claiming it may reduce the risk of heart disease when combined with a low-fat diet. This is because of the beta-glucan in the oats. Rolled oats have long been a staple of many athletes’ diets, especially weight trainers; given oatmeal’s high content of complex carbohydrates and water-soluble fibre that encourages slow digestion and stabilizes blood-glucose levels. Oatmeal porridge also contains more B vitamins and calories than other kinds of porridges.

Contents
1 Unintentional weight loss
1.1 Causes of unintentional weight loss
2 Intentional weight loss
2.1 Therapeutic weight loss techniques
2.2 Crash dieting
2.3 Weight loss industry

Unintentional weight lossUnintentional weight loss occurs in many diseases and conditions, including some very serious diseases such as cancer, AIDS, and a variety of other diseases.

Poor management of type 1 diabetes mellitus, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), leads to an excessive amount of glucose and an insufficient amount of insulin in the bloodstream. This triggers the release of triglycerides from adipose (fat) tissue and catabolism (breakdown) of amino acids in muscle tissue. This results in a loss of both fat and lean mass, leading to a significant reduction in total body weight. Untreated type 1 diabetes mellitus can produce weight loss.

In addition to weight loss due to a reduction in fat and lean mass, fluid loss can be triggered by illnesses such as diabetes, certain medications, lack of fluid intake or other factors. Fluid loss in addition to reduction in fat and lean mass exacerbates the risk for cachexia.

Infections such as HIV may alter metabolism, leading to weight loss.

Hormonal disruptions, such as an overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism), may also exhibit as weight loss.

Recent research has shown fidgeting to result in significant weight loss.

Causes of unintentional weight lossStarvation, a state of extreme hunger resulting from lack of essential nutrients over a prolonged period.
Cancer, a very common and sometimes fatal cause of unexplained (idiopathic) weight loss. About one-third of unintentional weight loss cases are secondary to malignancy. Cancers to suspect in patients with unexplained weight loss include gastrointestinal, prostate, hepatobillary (hepatocellular carcinoma, pancreatic cancer), ovarian, hematologic or lung malignancies should be considered in any patient presenting with unexplained weight loss.
AIDS can cause weight loss and should be suspected in high-risk individuals presenting with weight loss.
Gastrointestinal disorders are another common cause of unexplained weight loss – in fact they are the most common non-cancerous cause of idiopathic weight loss. Possible gastrointestinal etiologies of unexplained weight loss are celiac disease, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease (crohns disease and ulcerative colitis), pancreatitis, gastritis, diarrhea and many other GI conditions can cause weight loss.
Infection. Some infectious diseases can cause weight loss. These include fungal illness, endocarditis, many parasitic diseases, AIDS, and some other sub-acute or occult infections may cause weight loss.
Renal disease. Patients who have uremia often have poor or absent appetite, emesis and nausea. This can cause weight loss.
Cardiac disease. Cardiovascular disease, especially congestive heart failure, may cause unexplained weight loss.
Pulmonary disease.
Connective tissue disease
Neurologic disease, including dementia
Intentional weight lossIntentional weight loss refers to the loss of total body mass in an effort to improve fitness and health, and to change appearance.

Therapeutic weight loss, in individuals who are overweight or obese, can decrease the likelihood of developing diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, osteoarthritis, and certain types of cancer.While being overweight had been thought to be linked to stroke there is no strong evidence to support that link.

Attention to diet in particular can be beneficial in reducing the impact of diabetes and other health risks of an overweight or obese individual.

Weight loss occurs when an individual is in a state of negative energy balance: when the body is exerting more energy (i.e. in work and metabolism) than it is consuming (i.e. from food or other nutritional supplements), it will use stored reserves from fat or muscle, gradually leading to weight loss.

It is not uncommon for some people who are currently at their ideal body weight to seek additional weight loss in order to improve athletic performance, and/or meet required weight classification for participation in a sport. However, others may be driven by achieving a more attractive body image. Notably, being underweight is associated with health risks such as difficulty fighting off infection, osteoporosis, decreased muscle strength, trouble regulating body temperature and even increased risk of death.

There are many diet plans and recipes that can be helpful for weight loss. While some are classified as unhealthy and potentially harmful to one’s general health, others are recommended by specialists. Diet plans are generally designed according to the recommended caloric intake but it is important to note that the most successful diets are those that simultaneously promote physical activity. There are many dietary programs that claim to be efficient in helping overweight individuals to lose weight with no effort. However, the long-term efficacy of these plans is questionable.

Intentional weight loss is, in most cases, achieved with the help of diets since dietary restriction is generally more manageable than making a significant change in one’s lifestyle (although weight loss is generally associated with some degree of change in lifestyle habits) or beginning to practice a sport. In that regard, a wide variety of dietary strategies have been designed to meet the needs of individuals seeking to lose excess weight. Calorie-restriction strategies are one of the most common dietary plans. Notably, daily calorie consumption for dietary purposes vary depending on a number of factors including, age, gender, weight loss goals, and many more. For instance, nutritionists suggest that a minimum of 1,200 daily calories should be consumed by women in order to maintain health. The daily calorie consumption by men, on the other hand, could approach 1,500. It is important to note that these recommendations primarily target relatively healthy individuals who seek weight loss for a better body tonus. However, individuals whose obesity places them at an increased risk for diabetes, heart disease, or other conditions, may follow a more strict diet, but only under the close monitoring of a physician and/or specialist. In some cases, obese individuals may need to restrict their daily calorie intake to 800 or even 500.According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), healthy individuals seeking to maintain their weight, should consume 2,000 calories per day.

According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 Executive Summary, which was released on January 31, 2011, those that achieve and manage a healthy weight do so most successfully by being continuously vigilant in taking in only the amount of calories that meet their needs and with physical activity.

Low-calorie regimen diets are also referred to as balanced percentage diets. Due to their minimal detrimental effects, these types of diets are most commonly recommended by nutritionists. In addition to restricting calorie intake, a balanced diet also regulates macronutrient consumption. Therefore, from the total number of allotted daily calories, 55% should come from carbohydrates, 15% from protein, and 30% from fats with no more than 10% of total fat coming from saturated forms. For instance, a 1,200 calorie diet would consist of no more than 660 calories from carbohydrates, 180 from protein, and 360 from fat. Although counting calories seems difficult altogether, the long term benefits of calorie restriction are many. After reaching the desired body weight, the amount of calories consumed per day may be increased gradually, without exceeding 2,000 net (i.e. derived by subtracting calories burned by physical activity from calories consumed). Combined with increased physical activity, low-calorie diets are thought to be most effective long term, unlike crash diets which can achieve short term results, at best. Physical activity could greatly enhance the efficiency of a diet. The healthiest weight loss regimen, therefore, is one that consists of a balanced diet and moderate physical activity.

The golden rule in weight loss is to avoid foods that are high in sugars, which contribute to increased body mass and are detrimental to the overall health. Further, weight gain has been associated with excessive alcohol consumption.[citation needed] Depression, stress or boredom may also contribute to weight increase,[citation needed] and in these cases, individuals are advised to seek medical help. A 2010 study found that dieters who got a full night’s sleep more than doubled the amount of fat loss compared to sleep-deprived dieters.

[edit] Therapeutic weight loss techniquesSee also: Obesity#Management, Bariatrics, and Virtual gastric band
The least intrusive weight loss methods, and those most often recommended, are adjustments to eating patterns and increased physical activity, generally in the form of exercise. Physicians will usually recommend that their overweight patients combine a reduction of processed foods and caloric content of the diet with an increase in physical activity.

An increase in fiber intake is also recommended for regulating bowel movements.

Other methods of weight loss include use of drugs and supplements that decrease appetite, block fat absorption, or reduce stomach volume. Application of such medications, however, should only be performed under the strict supervision of a physician and/or specialist.

Finally, surgery (i.e. bariatric surgery) may be used in more severe cases to artificially reduce the size of the stomach, thus limiting the intake of food energy.

Dietary supplements, though widely used, are not considered a healthy option for weight loss. Even though a wide array of these products is available to the public, very few are effective long term.

Bariatric surgery is usually considered a last resort in treating severe obesity and it consists of two main procedures: gastric bypass and gastric banding.

Virtual gastric band uses hypnosis to make the brain think the stomach is smaller than it really is and hence lower the amount of food ingested. This brings as a consequence weight reduction. This method is complemented with psychological treatment for anxiety management and with hypnopedia. In 1996 a study revealed that hypnosis reinforced with cognitive-behavioral therapy was more effective than just CBT for weight reduction.

[edit] Crash dietingA crash diet refers to willful nutritional restriction (except water) for more than 12 waking hours. The desired result is to have the body burn fat for energy with the goal of losing a significant amount of weight in a short time. There is a possibility of muscle loss, depending on the approach used.[clarification needed] Crash dieting can be dangerous to health and this method of weight loss is not recommended by medical doctors.

Crash dieting is not the same as intermittent fasting, in which the individual periodically abstains from food (e.g., every other day).

[edit] Weight loss industry The examples and perspective in this USA may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. (December 2010)

There is a substantial market for products which promise to make weight loss easier, quicker, cheaper, more reliable, or less painful. These include books, DVDs, CDs, cremes, lotions, pills, rings and earrings, body wraps, body belts and other materials, not to mention fitness centers, personal coaches, weight loss groups, and food products and supplements. US residents in 1992 spent an estimated $30 billion a year on all types of diet programs and products, including diet foods and drinks.

Between $33 billion and $55 billion is spent annually on weight loss products and services, including medical procedures and pharmaceuticals, with weight loss centers garnering between 6 percent and 12 percent of total annual expenditure. About 70 percent of Americans’ dieting attempts are of a self-help nature. Although often short-lived, these diet fads are a positive trend for this sector as Americans ultimately turn to professionals to help them meet their weight loss goals.

In Western Europe, sales of weight-loss products, excluding prescription medications, topped £900 million ($1.4 billion) in 2009

Breakfast – 250 kcal.
Midmorning snack (elevenses) – 100 kcal.
Dinner – 350 kcal.
Tea – 100 kcal.
Supper – 200 kcal.

Example of 1000 kcal diet:
Breakfast – 250 kcal:
To select
1. Spread a whole-wheat roll with a teaspoon of butter or margarine, put on it 2 thin slices of cooked ham and several slices of cucumber.
2. Pour half a package of vanilla yogurt over 30 g of chocolate flakes, add a mandarin.
3. Mix 10 g of cottage cheese with a teaspoon of cream, sprinkle it with lemon juice and sweeten with sweetener. Add cut half an orange and half an apple and 100 g of raspberries.
4. A slice of brown toast with a teaspoon of margarine, cover it with a leaf of lettuce, a slice of cheese or a teaspoon of melted cheese. Eat with kiwi and carrot or tomato, pepper.
5. A slice of wholewheat bread spread with a teaspoon of butter and 50 g of cottage cheese, cover it with tomato.
6. Mix an egg with a spoon of water, add half a bunch of chopped dill or chives, season with salt and pepper. Fry on a spoon of butter. Eat with a slice of whole-wheat bread.
7. Cut a small roll and spread it with a teaspoon of butter and 2 teaspoons of jam.

Midmorning snack (elevenses) and tea – 100 kcal:
To select
1. A slice of bread with butter and tomato.
2. A slice of crisp bread with 2 teaspoons of cottage cheese and tomato.
3. A slice of pumpernickel with butter and half a cucumber.
4. A cup of tomato soup with rice.
5. 100 ml of vegetable stock mixed with an egg.
6. Carrot with apple and lemon juice.
7. 2 tomatoes, 2 small onions with chives.
8. 6 thin slices of pork loin.
9. 4 thin slices of sausage.
10. A slice of cooked ham.
11. 6 slices of poultry loin.
12. 100 g of cream cheese with 100 g of strawberries.
13. 100 g of lean cottage cheese with chives.
14. a glass of buttermilk with a slice of crisp bread.
15. A small banana.
16. Grapefruit.
17. 2 peaches.
18. 2 apples.
19. 2 delicacies.
20. 5 pieces of chocolate.
21. 3 scoops of fruit ice cream.

Dinner – 350 kcal:
To select
1. Chop 100 g of chicken breast, a small green or yellow zucchini, carrot and leek. Fry meat on a spoon of oil, add vegetables and stew for 5 minutes. Season with salt, pepper and Chinese spice. Pour it with thyme, eat with a slice of whole-wheat bread or 2 small potatoes.
2. 100 -150 g of chicken breast sprinkle with spices (Vegeta, paprika, pepper etc), fry on a spoon of olive oil. Boil 150 – 200 g of vegetables (cauliflower, broccoli, green bean, carrot). Eat with a potato.
3. 150 g of turkey breast and 200 g of mushrooms rinse and cut. Fry on a spoon of oil. Add 50 g of green pea and a spoon of skim cream. Season with herbs, salt and pepper.
4. 100 g of minced meat mix with a spoon of cottage cheese, salt and pepper. Form small cutlets. Remove all seeds from 2 peppers, peel an onion. Chop vegetables. On a frying pan heat up a spoon of oil. Fry cutlets with vegetables.
5. Mix a glass of boiled pasta with a salad of tomato, pepper, cucumber and 2 spoons of cottage cheese.
6. Eat a glass of buckwheat with an egg fried on a teaspoon of oil. Additionally drink a glass of buttermilk or kefir.
7. Boil and cut a substantial unpeeled potato. Dice a small piece of red pepper. Mix a spoon of vinegar, a teaspoon of olive oil, salt and pepper. Sprinkle vegetables with marinade. 100 g of fillet from hake, cod, flounder, trout or sole fry with butter or margarine.

Supper – 200 kcal:
To select
1. A salad of lean cured meat product, a chicory, a sour cucumber, a sour apple, 100 ml of natural yogurt.
2. Boiled dough pockets filled with 150 g of skim cottage cheese and potatoes.
3. 2 slices of rye crisp bread with butter or margarine and cottage cheese and a salad of chicory, radishes and tomato.
4. A slice of brown bakery product with 50 g of lean cured meat product and a salad of pepper, onion and tomato.
5. A slice of bakery product and a salad of leek, sour cucumber, 3 spoons of canned green pea.
6. A fruit salad of kiwi, grapefruit, a slice of pineapple.
7. A salad with tuna (120 g of tuna in oil, 2 spoons of corn, 2 spoons of boiled rice, 2 leaves of Chinese cabbage).

Anderson diet
Weight loss program:
This diet was worked out by a dietician from a university from Los Angeles, Henry L. Anderson. This is also a one from not-linking kind of diets. Its followers claim the reason of putting on weight is incorrectly set menu, but also one needs to watch the amount of calories in the evening and obey certain rules.

From midnight until midday – one is allowed to eat only fruit and drink only fruit juices (squeezed from fruit).

From midday until 4 p.m. – in midday we drink vegetable juice. About 30 minutes later one can begin to vegetable salads, their basis is to be lettuce. One must not eat sauces of any kind, also on the base of yogurt or olive oil.

From 4 p.m. until 8 p.m. – one can eat everything remembering one cannot link proteins with carbohydrates (e.g. meat, fish and cheese with potatoes, groats, bakery products and pasta). After having eaten fruit one should wait 30 minutes to the next meal. The last meal ought to be eaten before 8 p.m.

It is also necessary to remember the following matters: we eat when we feel hunger, coffee, tea, alcohol, carbonated water and juices from a shop are excluded, we do not drink directly before, during and just after a meal.

Example of Anderson diet:
From midnight until midday
Apple juice, bananas, ripe pears, grapes.

From midday until 4 p.m.
Carrot juice, lettuce with tomatoes and onion, almonds.

From 4 p.m. until 8 p.m.
Roast potatoes, green pea, lean meat with lettuce and vegetables.

Anti – diabetic diet
Diets program:
Anti – diabetic diet should be the most similar to nourishment of a healthy man. The fundamental modification depends on significant limitation of easily-available carbohydrates (glycemic index), and first of all any sweets and products containing considerable addition of sugar. One should also limit fats and increase the amount of proteins in comparison to a healthy man’s nourishing. In food very important is the control of quantity and quality of consumed dishes and their schedule during the whole day. It concerns especially carbohydrates. People suffering from diabetes can neither eat big amounts of food nor remain too long without it. Number of meals a day should be equal and also each meal ought to be consumed at the same time each day.

Products recommended in anti – diabetic diet:

every kind of bakery products but a part of daily diet in form of whole-wheat bread,

milk of 2% fat content, powdered skim milk, skimmed cottage cheese,

lean meat, fish, poultry,

only lean cured meat products: beef or pork ham sausage, ham, loin,

butter in limited quantity,

sugar in very limited quantity or its total elimination,

rape oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, olive oil, plant butter, high quality margarine, home-made mayonnaise.

Products forbidden in anti – diabetic diet:

full fat milk, powdered full fat milk, fat cheese, cottage cheese and melted cheese,

egg yolk,

fat meat, fish, poultry, liver, brain, kidneys,

fat cured pork products, pâté,

butter in average or large quantity, cream,

margarine (apart from mentioned as allowed), lard, back fat, beef and mutton tallow,

sugar, all products and preserves with sugar, honey.

Anti – ulcer diet
Diets program:
It is a protective diet with limitation of substances increasing secretion of gastric juice. It is used in case of ulcer disease of stomach and duodenum, ulcers of intestine.

Products recommended in anti – ulcer diet:

white wheat or stale bakery products,

white wheat flour, semolina, rice, sago, oat flakes, barley groats, fine delicate pasta,

sweet milk, not-sour curled milk, very fresh cottage cheese, full cream cheese,

soft-boiled egg, shell-less boiled egg, steamed fried egg, steamed scrambled eggs,

lean meat and poultry: veal, beef, rabbit, turkey, chicken, ham, loin,

fish: cod, bream, sole, flatfish, pike, pike perch,

fresh butter, sweet cream, soybean oil, sunflower oil, rape oil, olive oil, high quality margarine in limited quantity,

boiled, mashed potatoes, purée,

boiled: carrot, beet, spinach, cucurbit, pumpkin, cauliflower, green bean and green pea in limited amounts; raw: lettuce, tomato,

ripe fruit without stones, boiled: apple, strawberries, apricot, boiled juices from berries,

sugar, honey, jam,

cereal stale pastries, low-sweet sponge cake,

seasonings: salt, sugar, vanilla, dill, lemon juice,

gruel, barley soup from allowed groats, milk and vegetable soups seasoned with flour,

cooked and stewed meat, fricassee, meatballs, puddings,

compote, jelly, jelly-type dessert made with potato starch – all of them with low sugar content,

soft tea, soft coffee, milk.

Products forbidden in anti – ulcer diet:

any fresh, rye and whole-wheat bakery products,

whole-wheat flour, groats: hulled barley, buckwheat, thick pasta, dumplings, pancakes,

sour curled milk, kefir, yogurt, cheese and melted cheese,

hard-boiled egg, fried egg, egg in mayonnaise, scrambled eggs,

fat meat: pork, mutton, goose, duck, venison, fatty cured meat products; fish: eel, mackerel, salmon, herring, sardine; cured, smoked meat, meat and fish cans,

sour cream, lard, back fat, bacon, mutton and beef tallow, margarine,

french fries, all kinds of fried potatoes, potato pancakes, dumplings,

all kinds of cabbage, cucumber, radish, turnip, pepper, sorrel, onion, fungus,

raw and dried fruit, pear, gooseberries, sweet cherry, plum, nuts,

pea, bean, broad bean, lentil,

halvah, chocolate, sweets containing fat, cocoa and nuts,

vinegar, pepper, mustard, paprika, horseradish, bouillon cubes,

broth, soups on stocks from meat or bones, fish soups, soups from contraindicated vegetables,

fried, stewed and roast in conventional way meat,

desserts with chocolate, nuts, high content of sugar, desserts from contraindicated fruit,

strong tea and natural coffee, alcohol drinks, carbonated drinks,

crisp cakes, fruit cakes, poppyseed cake, donuts, gateaux.

Anti – constipation diet
Diets program:
Its aim is regulation of defecation without use of pharmaceuticals. This diet contains increased amount of not-digested in human’s digestive system “dietary fiber” (dietary fibre) of plant polysaccharides (cellulose, pectins, gums, hemicellulose, lignin, mucilages). Daily dose in a healthy man’s diet should contain 40 g of these compounds. The rich-rest (anti-constipation) diet characterizes itself with increased amount of these substances (50-70 g a day). Apart from introduction of this diet in constipations it is also used in prophylactics of large intestine sensitive syndrome, formation of diverticulum or cancer of large intestine, prevention of growth of arteriosclerosis, cholelithiasis, diabetes and obesity caused by overeating with high-calorie food missing rich-rest nutrients. One of the main reasons of growth of metabolism civilization diseases is nourishing with highly-purified food, while plant polysaccharides provided with food, constituting mass filling in digestive system increase water amount in intestine content, absorb cancerigens forming in large intestine from decomposition of gall acids and accelerate their expelling. Dietary fiber also decreases concentration of cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose.

Products recommended in anti – constipation diet:

fresh and curled skim milk, kefir and yogurt,

skim cottage cheese,

egg white, egg yolk only in limited quantity,

lean meat: veal, beef, horsemeat, rabbit, chicken, turkey, pigeon,

cod, redfish, pike perch, pike, tench, bream, crucian carp,

lean ham and loin, meat in jelly,

skim cream, plant oils: sunflower, rape, soybean, olive oil in limited quantity,

boiled and roast potatoes, mashed potatoes,

all vegetables and fruit,

plum jam, sugar, syrups, jams, jelly, fruit candies, drops, honey,

bay leaf, allspice, vanilla, cinnamon, salt, lemon juice,

skim milk, buttermilk, whey, herb infusions, soft tea, soft chicory coffee,

butter in limited quantity, cheese and cottage cheese from skim milk,

soups on stocks from a bunch of mixed vegetables (carrot, leek, celeriac, parsley), vegetable soups, barley soup, milk soup, fruit soup,

stewed and fried without fat meat dishes,

salads, juices, boiled vegetables,

fruit desserts, compotes, jelly, dessert made from milk, sugar and starch.

Products forbidden in anti – constipation diet:

bakery products with low fiber content, fresh, white, wheat, bakery products, whole-wheat bread on honey,

wheat flour from full milling, corn, potato flour,

full fat milk, kefir, yogurt,

other cheese,

large amounts of egg yolk,

mutton, pork, haslets, venison, duck, goose, fat fish,

pâté, fat cured meat products,

salt butter,

full fat cream,

french fries, fried potato pancakes,

sweets, chocolate, pralines, candies, pastries, conserve,

alcohol, cocoa, liquid chocolate, strong coffee and tea,

soups on fat stocks,

fried and roast dishes,

gateaux, confectionery creams, whipped cream, ice cream, cookies, jelly-type dessert made with potato starch.

Atkins diet
Weight loss program:
The author of Atkins diet is Robert C. Atkins, who is the founder and director of Complementary Medicine Center in New York. In his opinion to fight efficiently against obesity and overweight one does not need to decrease the quantity of nourishment. It is enough to limit the consumption of carbohydrates – the basic energetic fuel, and because of that to force the organism to burn accumulated fat. During a two-week-long Atkins diet one does not eat bakery products, cereal products, vegetables containing starch, yogurt, milk and fruit. A daily menu in Atkins diet cannot consist of more than 20 g of carbohydrates. Meat, cured meat products, fish and eggs can be eaten in quantity satisfying hunger but the must not be linked with products containing carbohydrates. Because the diet drastically limits the quantity of consumed vegetables and fruit during its applying one ought to take vitamin-mineral preparations.

Example of Atkins diet:
Breakfast:
Scrambled eggs or fried eggs with bacon, ham or sausage, decaffeinated coffee or tea.

Dinner:
Cured meat products, roast or fried chicken, poultry broth, little ration of salad, noncarbonated mineral water.

Supper:
Pâté from hen livers, steak, salad with vinaigrette sauce, whipped cream without sugar.

By day:
Cured meat products as snacks, mineral water, not sugared coffee, tea.

Budwig diet
Diets program:
The author of this pro-healthy diet is Johanna Budwig – a German biochemist. Her discoveries (research into omega-3 fatty acids and flaxseed oil) found application among other things in treatment of diseases such as: Alzheimer’s disease, tumors, arteriosclerosis, allergy, dermatoses, depression. Diet relies on providing organism with nourishment rich among other things in omega-3 fats, complex carbohydrates, fiber and antioxidants. The basic rules of Budwig diet include the following issues:

the basic fat in this diet is cold-pressed and unrefined flaxseed oil. The use of refined or hydrogenated fats (oils, margarines, mayonnaises) is forbidden. To reach treatment efficient effects one needs to strictly eliminate fried products, fatty dairy products and meat from his diet,

consume only fresh products. Dishes should not be prepared on base of products artificially preserved, with chemical additives (sodium benzoate and other artificial food additives),

flaxseed oil ought to be consumed each day in the form of so-called spread (it is prepared by mixing from 6 to 8 minutes flaxseed oil and skim cottage cheese in ratio of 5-6 spoons of oil to 125g of cheese), in prophylaxis 2 spoons, in light affections 2-4 spoons, in serious cases 6 spoons are used. After pasta has been prepared it needs to be kept in a fridge. It may be seasoned with herbs, salt, garlic, paprika, pepper. Johanna Budwig recommends to eat pasta every morning together with muesli, cereal flakes, a spoon of ground flaxseed and grated apple as well as separately. For ill people it is also advised to eat ground flaxseed.

Products recommended in Budwig diet:

sea fish (mackerel, cod, herring, tuna) up to 200 g a day,

fresh fruit, in amount from 3 to 4 rations of average quantity a day. Fruit should not be mixed,

fruit juices at least a glass daily. Between drinking of juice from citrus fruit and consumption of spread several hours ought to pass,

sour milk products (natural yogurt, kefir, buttermilk, acidophilous milk),

cereals in form whole-wheat bakery products and unpurified flakes,

food yeast (before consumption boil it),

water. It is advised to drink 2 l of water a day (purified with mechanical filters or spring bottled but not mineral). It is best to consume liquids (water, juices) before a meal.

Products allowed in Budwig diet:

meat and poultry, but only unprocessed, with low-fat content, from animals which have not been fed with fodder containing hormones, pesticides, and antibiotics, in occasional amounts. In case of serious diseases e.g. tumors, meat and poultry should be completely given up,

honey.

Products forbidden in Budwig diet:

sugar, artificial sweeteners, juices in packaging of carton and bottle kind,

synthetic vitamin A (from vitamin preparations),

other fats apart from cold-pressed flaxseed oil.

Hay diet
Weight loss program:
Hay diet worked out by an American doctor William Howard Hay is a diet of not-linking carbohydrate products with protein ones. He divided products into protein, carbohydrate and neutral. These last products can be linked with all the others. During a day one should eat a meal based on carbohydrates, a protein one and a one consisted only of fruit or vegetables. There must be a 4-hour interval between protein and carbohydrate meals. From menu we exclude sugar, salt, coffee, strong tea, carbonated drinks, chocolate, white bakery products, red meat, cured meat products, beer, alcohol, cakes, fast food, powdered products. We give fried, hot seasoned dishes and cakes with fruit and cream. We eat fruit when our stomach is empty or as a snack between meals. We eat often but little – 3 meals and if need be 2 snacks. We drink between meals and never during them. We try to avoid fat because it postpones digestion process. The division of products into groups looks following:

Protein group:
Pod vegetables, eggs, milk, yogurt, meat, fruit (apple, apricot, kiwi, sweet cherry, sour cherry, grapes, grapefruit, pear, pineapple, currants, strawberries, raspberries, peach, mandarin, lemon, prune), mayonnaise, vinaigrette sauce.

Carbohydrate group:
Cereal products (grains, whole-wheat bread, oat flakes), potato, artichoke, sweet fruit (figs, banana, sweet and ripe pears, grapes, raisins), beer.

Neutral group:
Fats (plant oils, butter, margarine, olive oil), sweet and sour cream, vegetables (beside potato, asparagus, green bean, beet, onion, spinach, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, leek, pumpkin, zucchini, celeriac, eggplant, champignons, lettuce, cucumber, radish, dill, garlic, germs, seed onion, chicory), avocado fruit, bran, honey, cured meat products, herbs.

Example of Hay diet:
Breakfast:
Big bunch of grapes.

Dinner:
Pasta with sauce made of olive oil, garlic, basil and peanuts.

Supper:
Roast chicken breast, steamed broccoli and cauliflower.

Hollywood diet
Weight loss program:
Hollywood diet belongs to low-calorie diets – 1200-1500 kcal. Daily amount of calories does not have to be drastically decreased just from the beginning of treatment but it can be done gradually e.g. 200 kcal a week. It allows to get accustomed to smaller food portions without hunger. Besides menu of diet should contain the following ingredients: natural yogurt, onion, bran, yeast, germs. During the first week of the diet only fruit are eaten (e.g. 3 grapefruit, 750 g of strawberries, 250 g of prunes or plums). In the second and third week vegetables, lean meat and cereal products are introduced. Eggs and milk are forbidden. Dishes are not salted. Between eating different kinds of fruit one must keep an hour interval, and between fruit and meat 2-hour break. As in case of every slimming diet we drink noncarbonated mineral water or soft unsweetened tea. Hollywood diet is poor in nutrients so it ought to be carefully applied.

Example of Hollywood diet:
Breakfast:
4 teaspoons of wheat grains mixed with a teaspoon of honey, lemon juice, a teaspoon of natural yogurt and 3 chopped hazelnuts.

Midmorning snack (elevenses):
2 slices of whole-wheat bakery product without butter, half a glass of fresh germs and to choose: 100g of skim cottage cheese, 50g of lean smoked fish or a hard-boiled egg.

Dinner:
150g of boiled or grilled chicken, a slice of whole-wheat bread, half a lettuce loaf.

Tea:
Natural yogurt or kefir.

Supper:
2 glasses of raw or boiled vegetables with vinaigrette sauce, sprinkled with 2 spoons of bran.

Yogurt diet
Weight loss program:
Yogurt diet is rich in easy digestible protein, calcium, phosphorus and vitamins. It is recommended to use only yogurts containing live cultures, which facilitate and accelerate digestion. In this diet, apart from mentioned below fruit, bakery products and other components, one should eat the following kinds of yogurts: natural low-fat content yogurt, skimmed fruit yogurt and whole fruit yogurt.

Example of yogurt diet:
Breakfast:
150 g of fruit yogurt with quarter a glass of muesli, banana, or 150 g of wild strawberry yogurt with 2 spoons of wheat bran, 2 mandarins, or 150 g of sour cherry yogurt with 2 spoons of corn flakes, a big pear, or 150 g of apricot yogurt with cereal grains, an apple.

Dinner:
200 g of roast cod with yogurt sauce (half a glass of light yogurt with chopped onion), boiled potato, or 100 g of roast chicken breast, 300 g of boiled spinach (frozen product), sauce of half a glass of yogurt seasoned with a clove of garlic and basil, or roast chicken drumstick (100 g), 2 spoons of rice, a cucumber cut into slices and sprinkled with sauce made of half a glass of natural yogurt, a spoon of basil or mint, a pinch of salt, pepper and oregano, or 60 g of roast cod, half a glass of boiled pasta, sauce made of natural yogurt, diced tomato, a spoon of basil, a pinch of salt and pepper, salad of sour cucumber and cut into feathers seed onion, with a teaspoon of olive oil and a teaspoon of lemon juice.

Supper:
250 g of fruit salad, 50 g of natural yogurt or a hard-boiled egg, 2 tomatoes and a quarter of red onion, half a Graham roll, or 100 g of smoked cod, a salad made of a big tomato, pepper, 5 big lettuce leaves, half a chopped small red onion, seasoned with 4 spoons of natural yogurt mixed with grated clove of garlic and pepper, a slice of whole-wheat bread with a bit of margarine, or 120 g of beefsteak fried on a bit of rape oil, a salad of riced carrot and half an apple, seasoned with a teaspoon of olive oil or horseradish, half a whole-wheat roll.

Low cholesterol diet
Diets program:
This diet is dedicated to people with high concentration of cholesterol and triglycerides (tryglicerydes), and also for people burdened with the hazard of suffering from heart ischemia, infarct, arteriosclerosis, brain stroke. To “get released” from “harmful” cholesterol one should also remember the following matters: physical exertion which “melts” cholesterol best, avoidance of active and passive smoking, avoidance of sun excess and avoidance of stress.

Products recommended in low cholesterol diet:

whole-wheat bakery products,

kefir, buttermilk, natural yogurt,

skim cottage cheese,

red wine from wild rose (brier),

sea fish: mackerel, cod, herring, salmon, sprat, sardine (all not fried),

cold-pressed olive oil, cold-pressed rape oil,

carrot, garlic, onion, beet, cauliflower, tomato, pumpkin, spinach, cucurbit, broccoli, green pea, green bean, chicory, lettuce, potato, cabbage,

apple, lemon, grapes, strawberries, watermelon, apricot, kiwi, peach, orange, raspberries, currants,

fruit and vegetable soups without fat,

green tea,

brown rice and coarse groats,

natural (riced) fruit and vegetable juices, fruit drinks.

Products allowed in low cholesterol diet:

low-fat milk,

sea food,

bitter chocolate,

walnuts and hazelnuts,

white bakery products,

soybean oil, sunflower oil, plant butter,

sugar,

compotes, jelly-type desserts made with potato starch, moussy, jellies, desserts made of milk, sugar and starch,

eggless pasta,

lean meat: veal, beef, chicken, turkey, in form of: stewed, boiled, roast in foil, parchment, fricassee.

Products forbidden in low cholesterol diet:

full fat milk,

fat cottage cheese, cheese, melted cheese,

egg yolk,

haslets,

margarine,

goose, duck,

freshwater fish,

fat meat,

cream,

tallow, lard, bacon,

instant soups,

fast food,

french fries, potato pancakes,

sweet chocolate, sweets, pastries, candies,

alcohol, cocoa,

egg pasta,

color carbonated drinks

mayonnaise,

donuts, pastries prepared on fat.

Cabbage soup diet
Weight loss program:
Cabbage constitutes a precious source of vitamins and other essential for organism compounds. It can fully fill the demand for vitamin C. Fresh cabbage as well as sauerkraut increases the activity of digestive system, regulates the running of intestines and has wide medicinal properties. Sauerkraut is exceptionally low-calorific: 100 g of it has only 20 kcal of energy.
The diet won popularity thanks a rumor announcing Poland’s President Aleksander Kwasniewski had gained a beautiful shape thanks just cabbage. It was compiled for patients with cardiological problems. People, who have used it, lose even up to 5 kg a week, but the majority of them return to the previous weight. It relies on the introduction to a menu big amounts of vegetables which fill stomach (according to the authors they also cancel hunger). Without limits one can eat vegetable soup (such soup should always consist of cabbage) and vegetables and fruit, but meat and carbohydrates are strictly limited. The cabbage soup diet ought not to be applied longer than a week, but it is recommended to serve cabbage soup to a dinner.

Recipe for cabbage soup diet – soup I:
6 big onions, 2 green peppers, a can of tomato puree, a twig of celery and a loaf of cabbage. Preparation: cut and boil all ingredients, season with salt and pepper, a bouillon cube or soybean sauce can be added.

Recipe for cabbage soup diet – soup II:
Boil 2 glasses of water with a small can of tomato puree and a shredded loaf of cabbage.

Example of cabbage soup diet:
Breakfast:
Mix 2 eggs and 3 spoons of water with salt and pepper, pour into a frying pan. Add 30 g of ham. Spread butter on 1 or 2 slices of whole-wheat bread, cover them with 20 g of skim cottage cheese, spread with low-calorific conserve, or a slice of whole-wheat bread with butter, a slice of lean cured meat product, a tomato, or mix 3 spoons of oat flakes with 3 spoons of skim yogurt, dice a small apple and add it to the flakes.

Dinner:
Fish with cabbage, or a cabbage soup with potatoes or casseroled dish made of sauerkraut, sausage and fungus.

Supper:
A pancake of grated potatoes with apple and cabbage, addition of tuna and oat flakes, or a salad of cabbage, tomatoes, potatoes and ham with addition of chicory and parsley top leaves, or red sauerkraut with turkey breast, stewed beets, pieces of pear and crisp bread, or a slice of bread with cabbage sprinkled with caraway and slices of cheese (it can be sprinkled with oil).

High – energetic diet (Weight gain diet)
Diets program:
While the majority of people being on various diets fight overweight, there is a group of people who act oppositely and try to gain weight. Increase of weight in healthy way (by muscular tissue growth, and not adipose one!) is a slow process. To gain 0,5 kg a week the consumption of at least 500 kcal more a day consistently is needed. This quantity of calories can be variable because metabolism is affected by: body area, temperature, level of hormones, age, sex, condition of nervous system, consumption of coffee, tea, smoking and of course genetic factors. Taking into consideration mentioned above factors one must be conscious it is not easy.
Anyone who wants to gain weight, first of all during 7 days should carefully write down what he has eaten and drunk each day, strictly count consumed calories remembering about it is to be ordinary “nourishing” week. During these 7 days each morning before the first meal and each evening one registers his weight and its possible fluctuation and the correlation with taken daily calorie amount. Registering of consumed calories allows to estimate what calorie amount must be ensured to gain weight. To such obtained daily mean calorie consumption 500 kcal a day ought to be added. If after 2 months one has not gained weight, the amount of taken calories should be increased of 250 kcal in diet.
To gain weight one should obey several important rules of diet:

every day eat consistently three primary meals plus two or three additional snack meals. None of them may be skipped. By extension of meal “schedule” to 5-6 one will not have to force himself to consume meals and additionally will not feel “stuffing”. It often happens that only 2-3 hearty meals, which only needlessly weigh digestive system, are eaten a day. The last meal – snack ought to be eaten as late as possible to not to disturb sleep and problems with falling asleep. Among meals one should not take breaks longer than 4 hours,

after physical exertion instead of water one should drink large quantity of liquid nourishment – thick fruit and vegetable juices and milk drinks (best fermented). Contained in them water activates muscles,

intensify physical exercises to stimulate muscular tissue growth. In slim people physical exercises naturally cause weight losing instead of its gaining, but they stimulate appetite by what the quantity of consumed calories can be additionally increased. Exercises also cause bigger thirst what can be easily used to consume thick fruit and vegetable juices and milk drinks,

to gain weight one must demonstrate patience, but the slower and more systematically one gains weight the more new kilograms will turn into muscular tissue instead of adipose one,

generally the consumption of higher amount of fat influences weight gaining but consumption higher amount of fats of animal origin such as: butter, fatty cheese, fatty cream, fatty meat and fast food may lead to increase of cholesterol level, that is why they should be consumed in moderate amounts, whereas the consumption of unsaturated fats originated from olives, olive oil, sea fish and nuts is beneficial,

sweets, which also influence weight increase, should be substituted by sweet nourishment of higher nutritional value: (because of content of vitamins and mineral salts essential to correct weight gaining) such as: thick fruit and vegetable juices and milk drinks, muesli, honey, nuts and raisins, dried fruit,

avoid caffeine and nicotine as they are metabolism stimulators causing calories are faster burnt,

rest, relax, physical exercises are factors which indirectly affect weight increase. Stress and tension of nervous system are factors which ought to be avoided in diet.

Products recommended (additional) in high – energetic (weight gain) diet

pasta (half-hard cooked), brown (natural) rice,

brown bakery products from full milling, whole-wheat bakery products, pumpernickel,

muesli, flakes, nuts and raisins, sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds,

dried fruit: apricot, banana, papaya, apple, plum, figs, dates,

fruit: pineapple, banana, grape fruit, avocado, strawberries,

thick fruit and vegetable juices, nectars,

milk drinks: kefir, yogurt, curdled milk, acidophilous milk,

vegetables: green pea, corn (avoid canned one), potatoes, bean, carrot, vegetable marrow, olives, all remaining pod vegetables,

crackers,

honey,

sea fish,

olive oil,

poultry, beef.

Classification
LDL – “bad cholesterol”

HDL – “good cholesterol”

LDL – “bad cholesterol”
There are lipoproteins of low density. They increase cholesterol level in blood by its transport from liver to tissues – that is why they accelerate the grow of arteriosclerosis. Higher LDL (Low Density Lipoproteins) cholesterol level increases heart disease hazard because this form of cholesterol settles on arterial walls. To reduce the level of this fraction one should limit the consumption of saturated fatty acids and trans isomers (products originated from animals e.g. meat, butter, full fat milk, hydrogenated margarines, pastries, French fries, chips), increase consumption of food containing soluble fiber, keep the right body mass.

HDL – “good cholesterol”
There are lipoproteins of high density. They decrease the total level of cholesterol in blood by its transport to liver, where it is expelled – that is why they act positively, slowing down the growth of vessel arteriosclerosis. HDL (High Density Lipoproteins) collects redundant cholesterol and carries it back to liver to be processed by organism. It can also remove cholesterol accumulated in arteries what means arteriosclerosis moving back.

Food sources
Dietary cholesterol is found only in foods derived from animals (meat, fish, poultry, eggs and dairy products), it is not present in plants. Too high “bad cholesterol” content in a diet may increase the level of this ingredient in blood serum, although some people possess increased “combustion” of cholesterol coming from food of animal origin. For the rest one of protective action is limitation of daily cholesterol consumption. The safe range of cholesterol intake is:
200-400 milligrams per day.

Product
Cholesterol per 100 grams [g] of food in milligrams [mg]
Beef – loin, raw 70
Beef – on average, raw 59
Beef – ribs, raw 58
Beef – tongue, raw 108
Butter – ordinary 220
Bone marrow 3000
Camembert cheese – whole fat 73
Caviar 50
Cheddar cheese – whole fat 90
Chicken – breast, meat only, raw 64
Chicken – dark meat, meat only, raw 83
Chicken – liver, raw 380
Chicken eggs – whole, raw 600
Chicken eggs – yolk, raw 1790
Cod – smoked 50
Cod-liver oil 850
Cottage cheese – whole fat 37
Cream – 20% fat 66
Cream – 35% fat 120
Dried milk – powder, whole fat 109
Duck – on average, raw 76
Edam cheese – fat 71
Emmentaler cheese – fat 83
Goose – on average, raw 80
Hen – on average, raw 81
Herring – raw 64
Herring in oil 52
Herring in tomato sauce 50
Horse – on average, meat only, raw 75
Ice-cream 34
Kefir – natural, 2% fat 8
Lard 95
Mackerel – smoked 70
Meat paté 130
Milk – cow, 3,5% fat 14
Milk – goat 11
Milk – sheep 27
Mutton – leg, raw 78
Mutton – meat only, raw 78
Perch – raw 38
Pork – belly, raw 60
Pork – ham, raw 60
Pork – hearts, raw 140
Pork – kidney, raw 375
Pork – loin, raw 69
Pork – liver, raw 300
Pork – on average, raw 61
Pork – spare ribs, raw 66
Pork fat 99
Pork sausage 100
Rabbit – on average, raw 65
Salmon – raw 360
Sardines in oil 120
Shrimps – raw 152
Trout – raw 55
Tuna in oil 55
Turkey – breast, meat and skin, raw 65
Turkey – dark meat, meat and skin, raw 72
Turkey – on average 68
Veal – leg, raw 71
Veal – meat only, raw 71
Veal brain 2830
Yogurt – natural, 2% fat 8

Readings of cholesterol level
The right concentration in blood of the adults:

Total cholesterol [mg/dl]
desirable: below 200
borderline: 201-239
undesirable: 240 and above

LDL cholesterol (“bad cholesterol”) [mg/dl]
desirable: below 130
borderline: 131-159
undesirable: 160 and above

HDL cholesterol (“good cholesterol”) [mg/dl]
desirable: above 45
borderline: 41-45
undesirable: below 40

Triglycerides (Tryglicerydes) [mg/dl]
desirable: below 150
borderline: 151-199
undesirable: above 200

Having elevated triglycerides may also increase the risk of heart disease. The same factors like in the case of cholesterol (exercises, a good diet, and correct weight) can decrease triglycerides.

Combating high cholesterol
Many factors such as genetics, weight, lack of activity (exercises) and poor diet contribute to high cholesterol. Understanding how these factors affect your cholesterol is important in the prevention and treatment of high cholesterol.

Genetics
Just as some people inherit physical characteristics from their parents, others inherit an increased likelihood of developing high cholesterol. If you have a family history of heart disease or high cholesterol, it is important to focus on those aspects which you can control rather than feeling genetically doomed. By maintaining a healthy weight, exercising regularly and eating a low-fat, well-balanced diet you will decrease your chances of developing heart disease.

Weight
Accumulating excess weight is generally associated with increased total and LDL cholesterol. Every individual responds differently to weight loss, however most people find that blood cholesterol drops as weight decreases. The best way to lose weight and lower cholesterol is through increased activity coupled with low-fat eating.

Exercise
Exercise is very important in controlling cholesterol levels. Not only does total and LDL cholesterol tend to decrease with activity, but HDL cholesterol increases. In order to get this effect “aerobic” activity is best. Aerobic exercise is any exercise that is continuous, rhythmical and involves large muscle groups. Most aerobic exercise end with the letter “ing” (walking, running, rowing, cycling, swimming, rope skipping, dancing, hiking, and skating). The cholesterol lowering effect of exercise is greatest when individuals exercise at least 3 times per week for 30 minutes or more.

Diet
Diet is also a major component of decreasing blood cholesterol. A proper diet can help lower cholesterol for several reasons. Diet modifications are essential for weight loss but can effect cholesterol levels even if weight remains unchanged. Also, a proper diet is essential to provide energy for those engaging in daily aerobic exercise. Fat is often targeted as the main dietary factor which affects blood cholesterol. Fat serves many functions in the body therefore, a fat free diet is not a healthy diet. However, the amount and type of fat in the diet is important in controlling cholesterol. Other dietary suggestions

dietary fiber binds cholesterol and can help in cholesterol reduction. Choosing whole grain products (bran cereal, whole wheat bread) as well as fresh fruits and vegetables will increase dietary fiber intake,

read food labels. Food labels are required to list ingredients as well as the amount of fat, saturated fat and cholesterol in the food. Reading food labels will allow you to choose heart healthy foods,

select protein sources from: fish which contains omega-3 fatty acids and can be helpful in reducing the risk of heart disease lean cuts of meat (trim visible fats and look for little marbling), skinless poultry, cooked dry beans and legumes, eggs (limit 3-4 per week).

In case of increased cholesterol and triglyceride concentration in blood the application of efficient low – cholesterol diet is important.

Vitamins are organic compounds, which human’s organism cannot produce (or produces them in little amount in digestive system thanks specific bacterial flora), they must be provided together with food in finished form or form of provitamins, which during metabolism acquire full biologic activity. Vitamins – complementary factors, this term was introduced by Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk, who in 1911 had separated a compound of such character and called it vitamin B1.
Vitamins are compounds which are neither a source of energy nor structural tissue ingredients but they are essential to organism growth and correct run of metabolism processes. Their biological action is visible just at very small concentration.
Mechanism of vitamin action is different but all of them affect directly or indirectly cell metabolism processes, most frequently as so called co-enzymes or biologically active ingredients of hormone character.
As it is well-known, deficiency of any vitamin in organism causes hypovitaminosis and their deficiency avitaminosis. Even little deficiency of vitamins may lead to different kinds of disorder and increase hazard of occurrence of so-called civilization diseases. Excessive consumption or overdose of some of them is also very harmful and may be a reason of disease caused by their excess – hypervitaminosis, with symptoms of poisoning.

Classification of vitamins, functions, food sources, nutritional requirements, interesting facts
Fat soluble vitamins. They can be stored so organism in higher grade may tolerate their periodical deficiency.
Vitamin A

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Vitamin K

Water soluble vitamins. These vitamins are stored in organism in little grade so a nutritious dose should contain their optimum amount.
Vitamin B1

Vitamin B2

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B12

Vitamin PP (Niacin)

Vitamin C

Vitamin H (Biotin)

Folic acid (Folate)

Vitamin A
Function of vitamins:
Activity of vitamin A is revealed by many compounds structurally related. In animal organism it is retinol and its derivates (e.g. retinal, 3-dehydroretinol). In plants and fungus vitamin A occurs only as provitamin and its main compound is ß-carotene, additionally compounds defined as carotenoids occur. Vitamin A prevents nyctalopia, sight weakening, helps in treatment of many eye diseases because it belongs to retinal pigment, photosensitive dye located in stamens of retina. Vitamin A also ensures correct appearance of skin and affects synthesis of proteins, lipids and thyroid gland hormones, keeps in health mucous membranes of oral cavity, nose, throat, lungs, digestive system and increases immunity against infections.

Food sources:
As Retinol and its derivatives: liver, fish-liver oil, egg yolk, milk, butter, margarine. As ß-carotene and its derivatives (provitamin A): red and yellow fruit and vegetables (carrot, pumpkin, apricot, peach), dark-green vegetable parts (spinach, broccoli, kale, lettuce).

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin A in food products is expressed as “Retinol Equivalent” in micrograms [µg]. Retinol presents 100% of biological activity.

1 [µg] Retinol Equivalent = 1 [µg] Retinol (animal origin food)
= 6 [µg] ß-carotene (plant origin food)
= 12 [µg] other carotenoids (plant origin food)

The content of vitamin A in food products can be also expressed in International Units [I.U.]. In order to convert International Units into “Retinol Equivalent” we have to use the conversion factor.

1 [µg] Retinol Equivalent = 3,3 International Units [I.U.].

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin A*

Life stage group
Vitamin A
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[µg / day] Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) – The maximum amount that a person can take without risking adverse health effects
[µg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
300 600
Children 4-8 yr
400 900
Males 9-13 yr
600 1700
Males 14-18 yr 900 2800
Males 19-30 yr 900 3000
Males 31-50 yr 900 3000
Males 50-70 yr 900 3000
Males > 70 yr 900 3000
Females 9-13 yr
600 1700
Females 14-18 yr 700 2800
Females 19-30 yr 700 3000
Females 31-50 yr 700 3000
Females 50-70 yr 700 3000
Females > 70 yr 700 3000
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 750 2800
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 770 3000
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 770 3000
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 1200 2800
Lactation 19-30 yr 1300 3000
Lactation 31-50 yr 1300 3000

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

as vitamin A called Retinol it is located only in food of animal origin. As provitamin A called carotene it is placed in food of plant origin,

in connection with high eye strain, people, whose work is associated with long sitting in the front of a computer monitor, need more vitamin A,

ß-carotene occurs especially in red and yellow fruit and vegetables. It is responsible for saturated yellow, orange and red dye of these plants,

only ß-carotene is effective antioxidant. Moreover its overdose does not show so high toxicity as vitamin A overdose,

high vitamin A doses given during pregnancy may cause premature labor and also abnormalities and difficulties during labor,

vitamin A (as retinol and carotene) belongs to quite durable vitamins, which during cooking and properly conducted heat treatment processes does not undergo a change. At very high temperatures used during frying it inquires into high losses of vitamin A. Retinol also inquires into decomposition during rancid becoming of fat. Vitamin A is sensitive to light,

products with high ß-carotene content may provide necessary dose of vitamin A without hazard of carcinogenic changes causing.

Vitamin D
Function of vitamins:
Vitamin D (as vitamin D2 that is Ergocalciferol and vitamin D3 that is Cholecalciferol) fulfills relevant function in regulation of calcium and phosphorus transformation and bones forming. This vitamin increases absorption of calcium and phosphorus from intestines and also reduces the amount of calcium expelled from organism. It is also essential to optimum forming of osseous system, indirectly influences correct nervous conduction and correct heart beat.

Food sources:
Synthesized by organism under influence of sun light; fish-liver oil, sardine, mackerel, herring, salmon, tuna, egg yolk, liver, milk and dairy products.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin D in food products is expressed in micrograms [µg] or in International Units [I.U.].

1 International Unit [I.U.] = 0,025 [µg]

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin D. Values are based on the absence of adequate exposure to sunlight*

Life stage group
Vitamin D
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[µg / day] Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) – The maximum amount that a person can take without risking adverse health effects
[µg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
5 50
Children 4-8 yr
5 50
Males 9-13 yr
5 50
Males 14-18 yr 5 50
Males 19-30 yr 5 50
Males 31-50 yr 5 50
Males 50-70 yr 10 50
Males > 70 yr 15 50
Females 9-13 yr
5 50
Females 14-18 yr 5 50
Females 19-30 yr 5 50
Females 31-50 yr 5 50
Females 50-70 yr 10 50
Females > 70 yr 15 50
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 5 50
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 5 50
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 5 50
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 5 50
Lactation 19-30 yr 5 50
Lactation 31-50 yr 5 50

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

vitamin D is created in human’s skin in result of ultraviolet sun rays action. With nourishment mainly its initial form (provitamin) is taken; provitamin in following stages is processed in liver, kidneys and skin to right vitamin D,

older people are especially exposed to occurrence of vitamin D deficiency. In association with the age skin ability to production of this vitamin under influence of light drops down. Also much lower physical activity of the older is responsible for that,

vitamin D is soluble in fats. It makes its storage in organism easier, that is why too high its doses may cause hypervitaminosis,

20 g of a salmon covers daily demand for vitamin D.

Vitamin E
Function of vitamins:
Tocopherol that is vitamin E is a main antioxidant which protects cells against oxidants. It takes part in providing of nutrients to cells. It strengthens blood vessel walls and protects erythrocytes against premature decomposition. It is used to treatment of male sterility, muscle disorder, arteriosclerosis and heart diseases.

Food sources:
Plant oil (soybean, corn, sunflower), almond, margarine, eggs, walnut, peanut, wheat germ, wholewheat flour, milk, Brussels sprouts and other green-leaf vegetables.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin E in food products is expressed as “a-Tocopherol Equivalent” in miligrams [mg] taking into consideration the content and the activites of various other forms. a-Tocopherol presents 100% of biological activity.

1 [mg] a-Tocopherol Equivalent = 1 [mg] a-Tocopherol
= 2 [mg] b-Tocopherol
= 4 [mg] c-Tocopherol
= 5 [mg] a-Tocotrienol
= 25 [mg] b-Tocotrienol
= 25 [mg] c-Tocotrienol

In food tables we can encounter with International Units [I.U.]

1 [mg] a-Tocopherol Equivalent = 1,5 International Unit [I.U.].

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin E*

Life stage group
Vitamin E
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[mg / day] Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) – The maximum amount that a person can take without risking adverse health effects
[mg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
6 200
Children 4-8 yr
7 300
Males 9-13 yr
11 600
Males 14-18 yr 15 800
Males 19-30 yr 15 1000
Males 31-50 yr 15 1000
Males 50-70 yr 15 1000
Males > 70 yr 15 1000
Females 9-13 yr
11 600
Females 14-18 yr 15 800
Females 19-30 yr 15 1000
Females 31-50 yr 15 1000
Females 50-70 yr 15 1000
Females > 70 yr 15 1000
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 15 800
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 15 1000
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 15 1000
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 19 800
Lactation 19-30 yr 19 1000
Lactation 31-50 yr 19 1000

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

antioxiding properties of this vitamin are often used in process of processing and production of plant oil, margarine, roast foodstuffs, where it occurs as preservative counteracting rancid becoming of fat,

natural vitamin E is formed only in plants. Animals cannot produce it,

during blanching and drying of vegetables and fruit losses of this vitamin are high. Vitamin E deficiency in food may accelerate processes of natural ageing of organism and also increase hazard of arteriosclerosis and tumors,

as vitamin soluble in fats and stored in adipose tissue, taken for a longer time in a synthetic form, in doses higher than 1000 mg of a-tocopherol acetate a day, in older people, may cause fatigue, headaches, muscle weakening and sight disturbance,

vitamin E interacts with vitamins A, C, carotenoids, bioflavonoids and also with selenium decreasing hazard of carcinogenic diseases growth and formation of free radicals.

Vitamin K
Function of vitamins:
Vitamin K (as vitamin K1 – Phylloquinone, K2 – Menaquinone and K3 – Menadione) also called antihemorrhagical vitamin, fulfills a key role in forming of prothrombin, an important factor of blood coagulation process. Its best known function is antihemorrhagical action. It also participates in formation of osseous tissue. It possesses antibacterial and fungicidal properties.

Food sources:
Kale, spinach, Brussels sprouts, lettuce, cauliflower, cress, broccoli, milk, yogurt, soybean oil, fish liver oil, meat, eggs, produced by bacteria existing in human’s colon (large intestine).

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin K in food products is expressed in micrograms [µg]. For this vitamin Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) has been not determined due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin K*

Life stage group
Vitamin K
Adequate Intake (AIs) – the nutrient intake that appears to sustain defined nutritional states such as normal growth or normal blood levels of the nutrient
[µg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
30
Children 4-8 yr
55
Males 9-13 yr
60
Males 14-18 yr 75
Males 19-30 yr 120
Males 31-50 yr 120
Males 50-70 yr 120
Males > 70 yr 120
Females 9-13 yr
60
Females 14-18 yr 75
Females 19-30 yr 90
Females 31-50 yr 90
Females 50-70 yr 90
Females > 70 yr 90
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 75
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 90
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 90
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 75
Lactation 19-30 yr 90
Lactation 31-50 yr 90

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

children and bedridden people are doomed to supply their organism in vitamin K only by nourishment. In healthy adults this vitamin is produced by intestine bacterial flora,

vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) is retrieved from food, K2 (Menaquinone) is produced by intestine bacteria, and vitamin K3 (Menadione) is synthesized what means artificially manufactured,

antibiotic treatment may cause vitamin K deficiency because antibiotics destroy intestine flora. That is why, adequately to therapy, one should consider increased consumption of this vitamin,

yogurt and kefir are ideal dishes between meals, stimulating production of vitamin K,

rancid become fats, medicine overuse (salicylates or antibiotics) and preservatives in cans and ready-to-eat foodstuffs destroy vitamin K, make its absorption harder or lead to its premature expelling from organism,

as vitamin soluble in fats and stored in adipose tissue in case of excessive consumption it may negatively influence liver work,

in some cases newborns receive vitamin K from their birth, what minimizes bleeding occurrence.

Vitamin B1
Function of vitamins:
Thiamine that is vitamin B1 constitutes relevant factor in reactions of carbohydrates combustion in cells. Also close relation between demand for this vitamin and the amount of provided energy exists. Specially important role is fulfilled by vitamin B1 in actions and regeneration of nervous system. It is an ingredient of enzymatic systems and supports growth process.

Food sources:
Cereal seeds, whole-wheat products, bran, groats, enriched corn flakes, beer yeast, lean pork, in majority of vegetables, milk, nuts.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin B1 in food products is expressed in miligrams [mg]. For this vitamin Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) has been not determined due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin B1*

Life stage group
Vitamin B1
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[mg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
0,5
Children 4-8 yr
0,6
Males 9-13 yr
0,9
Males 14-18 yr 1,2
Males 19-30 yr 1,2
Males 31-50 yr 1,2
Males 50-70 yr 1,2
Males > 70 yr 1,2
Females 9-13 yr
0,9
Females 14-18 yr 1,0
Females 19-30 yr 1,1
Females 31-50 yr 1,1
Females 50-70 yr 1,1
Females > 70 yr 1,1
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 1,4
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 1,4
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 1,4
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 1,4
Lactation 19-30 yr 1,4
Lactation 31-50 yr 1,4

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

flour is usually enriched with vitamin B1 in purpose of compensation of losses during grain grinding process,

weak source of vitamin B1 in human is bacterial flora of digestive system,

in ruminants thiamine synthesis is conducted by microbes located in prestomachs because of what these animals do not suffer from its deficiency,

total lack of vitamin B1 in organism is defined as Beri – beri disease. This extraordinary disease has been discovered in prisons of Java Island in people fed only with white rice,

vitamin B1 overdose rarely occurs and characterizes itself with vertigo, oversensitiveness, muscle shivering, disorder of heart beat and allergic reactions,

physically hard working people, athletes, pregnant and feeding women and also people who smoke cigarettes, overuse alcohol and consume much sugar have higher demand for vitamin B1,

vitamin B1 belongs to vitamins most sensitive to action of high temperature and ionizoning rays, it is easily destroyed in basic environment. During culinary processes its losses reach 20-50%,

people with thiamine deficiency are often victims of mosquitoes and other insects. The cause is lower level of substances deterring insects in skin. Additionally thiamine speeds up wound heeling and reveals pain killing action.

Vitamin B2
Function of vitamins:
Riboflavin that is vitamin B2 participates in processes of oxidation and reduction, interacts in correct nervous system functioning, interparticipates with vitamin A in appropriate functioning of mucous membranes, respiratory ducts, digestive system mucosa, epithelium of blood vessels and skin, takes part in transformation of amino acids and lipids, fulfills an important role in functioning of sight organ.

Food sources:
Liver, skim cheese, almond, fungus, venison, eggs, green parts of vegetables, salmon, trout, mackerel, whole-wheat bakery products, clam, bean, pea, soybean, milk, yogurt, walnut.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin B2 in food products is expressed in miligrams [mg]. For this vitamin Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) has been not determined due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin B2*

Life stage group
Vitamin B2
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[mg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
0,5
Children 4-8 yr
0,6
Males 9-13 yr
0,9
Males 14-18 yr 1,3
Males 19-30 yr 1,3
Males 31-50 yr 1,3
Males 50-70 yr 1,3
Males > 70 yr 1,3
Females 9-13 yr
0,9
Females 14-18 yr 1,0
Females 19-30 yr 1,1
Females 31-50 yr 1,1
Females 50-70 yr 1,1
Females > 70 yr 1,1
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 1,4
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 1,4
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 1,4
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 1,6
Lactation 19-30 yr 1,6
Lactation 31-50 yr 1,6

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

50% of vitamin B2 is annihilated after exposing it to direct action of sun light. It is the most important reason of not selling milk in transparent glass bottles,

in high overdose nausea and vomiting may occur,

flour is often enriched with vitamin B2 and other vitamins from group B in purpose of compensation of losses emerged during production process.

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
Function of vitamins:
Pantothenic acid participates in heme synthesis to hemoglobin and cytochromes. As ingredient of coenzyme A it participates in synthesis and decomposition of fatty acids, synthesis of cholesterol and steroid hormones. It takes part in regeneration of skin cells and mucous membranes, participates in antibody production. It supports hair pigmenting process.

Food sources:
Liver, whole-wheat cereal seeds, sunflower seeds, wheat germs, meat, trout, herring, mackerel, beer yeast, egg yolk, green vegetables, walnut, milk, crab, Camembert cheese.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) in food products is expressed in miligrams [mg]. For this vitamin Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) has been not determined due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)*

Life stage group
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
Adequate Intake (AIs) – the nutrient intake that appears to sustain defined nutritional states such as normal growth or normal blood levels of the nutrient
[mg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
2
Children 4-8 yr
3
Males 9-13 yr
4
Males 14-18 yr 5
Males 19-30 yr 5
Males 31-50 yr 5
Males 50-70 yr 5
Males > 70 yr 5
Females 9-13 yr
4
Females 14-18 yr 5
Females 19-30 yr 5
Females 31-50 yr 5
Females 50-70 yr 5
Females > 70 yr 5
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 6
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 6
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 6
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 7
Lactation 19-30 yr 7
Lactation 31-50 yr 7

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

pantothenic acid belongs to the least lasting vitamins from group B. in process of grain grinding pantothenic acid losses reach up to 50%, meat roasting results in from 25 to 50% and during boiling from 15 to 30%. Synthetic preparations of pantothenic acid exist in form of calcium pantothenate. Calcium pantothenate is resistant to action of light and air,

in people whose main ingredients of a diet are cooked dishes, canned food, French fries, white bakery products, pizza, pasta, and moreover they eat much sugar and sweets, deficiency of pantothenic acid may occur,

in case of synthetic pantothenic acid taking in quantity of over 10g a day accidents of digestive system disorder and diarrhea happen to occur,

the bacteria that normally colonize large intestine (the colon) are capable of making their own pantothenic acid. It is not yet known whether humans can absorb the pantothenic acid synthesized by their own intestinal bacteria in meaningful amounts.

Vitamin B6
Function of vitamins:
Vitamin B6 includes six related compounds (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and their phosphates), which are easily and mutually transformed and characterize with the same metabolism activity. Vitamin B6 takes part in amino acid transformation, protein synthesis and fatty acid metabolism. It increases immunity resistance and participates in antibody forming. It helps in change of amino acid – tryptophan into vitamin PP, what lifts up the level of this vitamin in organism. Essential in porhyrine synthesis (hem synthesis to hemoglobin – essential in production of erythrocytes) and hormone synthesis (e.g. serotonin, histamine).

Food sources:
Fish, pork, wheat germs, walnut, eggs, liver, brown (natural) rice, soybean, wheat, banana, avocado, spinach, poultry, whole-wheat bakery products.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin B6 in food products is expressed in miligrams [mg].

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin B6*

Life stage group
Vitamin B6
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[mg / day] Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) – The maximum amount that a person can take without risking adverse health effects
[mg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
0,5 30
Children 4-8 yr
0,6 40
Males 9-13 yr
1,0 60
Males 14-18 yr 1,3 80
Males 19-30 yr 1,3 100
Males 31-50 yr 1,3 100
Males 50-70 yr 1,7 100
Males > 70 yr 1,7 100
Females 9-13 yr
1,0 60
Females 14-18 yr 1,2 80
Females 19-30 yr 1,3 100
Females 31-50 yr 1,3 100
Females 50-70 yr 1,5 100
Females > 70 yr 1,5 100
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 1,9 80
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 1,9 100
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 1,9 100
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 2,0 80
Lactation 19-30 yr 2,0 100
Lactation 31-50 yr 2,0 100

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

vitamin B6 surplus, similarly as in case of other vitamins soluble in water, is expelled from organism. But comparing it with other vitamins from this group, excess of Vitamin B6 taken in form of pills may be toxic,

synthetic Vitamin B6 is produced in form of hydrochloride,

this vitamin is resistant to oxidation and high temperature, sensitive to action of ultraviolet radiation,

together with increase of protein consumption demand for vitamin B6 grows, during frying, boiling and curing of meat its losses reach 30-50%.

Vitamin B12
Function of vitamins:
Cobalamin that is Vitamin B12 takes part in erythrocytes formation, genetic material formation (DNA and RNA synthesis), participates in metabolism transformation of fats and carbohydrates, nervous system appropriate functioning, takes part in purine and PIRYMIDYNA transformation. It prevents malignant anemia.

Food sources:
Liver, beef, pork, poultry, oyster, spinach, salmon, herring, mackerel, trout, egg yolk, cheese, milk, Lucerne germs, enriched corn flakes.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin B12 in food products is expressed in micrograms [µg]. For this vitamin Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) has been not determined due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin B12*

Life stage group
Vitamin B12
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[µg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
0,9
Children 4-8 yr
1,2
Males 9-13 yr
1,8
Males 14-18 yr 2.4
Males 19-30 yr 2,4
Males 31-50 yr 2,4
Males 50-70 yr 2,4
Males > 70 yr 2,4
Females 9-13 yr
1,8
Females 14-18 yr 2,4
Females 19-30 yr 2,4
Females 31-50 yr 2,4
Females 50-70 yr 2,4
Females > 70 yr 2,4
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 2,6
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 2,6
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 2,6
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 2,8
Lactation 19-30 yr 2,8
Lactation 31-50 yr 2,8

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

vegetarians excluding from their diet eggs and dairy products are exposed to vitamin B12 deficiency in perspective of several years after switching to vegetarianism,

in relation with the fact vitamin B12 acts together with folate, increase of taking of folate partially levels its deficiency,

correct working thyroid gland makes vitamin B12 absorption easier,

vitamin B12 activates iron substances in organism and allows vitamin A absorption because it stimulates carotenes to participation in metabolism to allow them to transform later in active form of this vitamin,

iron and vitamin B6 deficiency decrease vitamin B12 absorption,

micro flora of human’s digestive system possesses the ability to vitamin B12 synthesis.

Vitamin PP (Niacin)
Function of vitamins:
Niacinamide that is vitamin PP, also called vitamin B3, includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid and derivatives emerging nicotinamide biological activity. This vitamin participates in regulation of sugar level in blood (production of energetic compounds), regulation of cholesterol level, takes part in reduction and oxidation processes (as coenzyme ingredient), participates in keep-up of appropriate state of skin, is involved in regulation of blood flow in vessels, interacts in sex hormones synthesis.

Food sources:
Fish, pork, wheat germs, walnut, eggs, liver, brown (natural) rice, soybean, wheat, banana, avocado, spinach, poultry, whole-wheat bakery products.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin PP (Niacin) in food products is expressed in miligrams [mg].

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin PP (Niacin)*

Life stage group
Vitamin PP (Niacin)
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[mg / day] Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) – The maximum amount that a person can take without risking adverse health effects
[mg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
6 10
Children 4-8 yr
8 15
Males 9-13 yr
12 20
Males 14-18 yr 16 30
Males 19-30 yr 16 35
Males 31-50 yr 16 35
Males 50-70 yr 16 35
Males > 70 yr 16 35
Females 9-13 yr
12 20
Females 14-18 yr 14 30
Females 19-30 yr 14 35
Females 31-50 yr 14 35
Females 50-70 yr 14 35
Females > 70 yr 14 35
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 18 30
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 18 35
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 18 35
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 17 30
Lactation 19-30 yr 17 35
Lactation 31-50 yr 17 35

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

it is one of the few vitamins which does not change in spite of processing and storage of food,

daily demand for vitamin PP is usually satisfied by its forming from an amino acid – tryptophan, it is assumed 1mg of niacinamide equals 60 mg of tryptophan,

excessive consumption of food containing sugar leads to loss of vitamin PP,

nicotinic acid and amide of this acid should not be mixed up with harmful nicotine, which is contained in tobacco,

vitamin PP deficiency may cause disadvantageous changes in permeability because this vitamin is necessary to correct functioning of brain and peripherel nervous system,

synthetic vitamin PP excess may cause: headaches, formication, skin reddening, head itchiness, noise in ears, dyspepsia, jaundice, heart arrhythmia, psychosis, likelihood of liver damage, loss of hunger, uric acid concentration, increased glucose content in plasma.

Vitamin C
Function of vitamins:
Ascorbic acid or dehydroascorbic acid, that is vitamin C, participates in production of collagen and basic proteins in the whole organism (bones, cartilages, tendons, ligaments), takes part in metabolism processes as substance conveying electrons, as one of the most important antioxidants it also fulfills a relevant function in reaction of depoisoning and immunity of organism protecting it against oxidation processes, participates in metabolism of fats, cholesterol and gall acid, takes part in vitamin E regeneration, is a factor balancing immunity system, reduces formation of carcinogenic nitrosoamines in stomach, has bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties in relation to some pathogenic microbes, participates in biosynthesis of hormones of adrenal gland cortex, lifts up organism immunity.

Food sources:
Wild rose (brier) fruit, black and red currant, red and green pepper, Brussels sprouts, elder, cauliflower, strawberry, spinach, kiwi, orange, lemon, raspberry, grapefruit, tomato, potato, cabbage, onion, broccoli, kohlrabi, asparagus, wild strawberry, liver, blackberry.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin C in food products is expressed in miligrams [mg].

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin C*

Life stage group
Vitamin C
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[mg / day] Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) – The maximum amount that a person can take without risking adverse health effects
[mg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
15 400
Children 4-8 yr
25 650
Males 9-13 yr
45 1200
Males 14-18 yr 75 1800
Males 19-30 yr 90 2000
Males 31-50 yr 90 2000
Males 50-70 yr 90 2000
Males > 70 yr 90 2000
Females 9-13 yr
45 1200
Females 14-18 yr 65 1800
Females 19-30 yr 90 2000
Females 31-50 yr 90 2000
Females 50-70 yr 90 2000
Females > 70 yr 90 2000
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 80 1800
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 85 2000
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 85 2000
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 115 1800
Lactation 19-30 yr 120 2000
Lactation 31-50 yr 120 2000

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

smokers have higher demand for vitamin C than non-smoking people,

taking too high doses of synthetic vitamin C is conducive to formation of calculi in kidneys,

vitamin C is very sensitive to action of high temperature, oxygen, light, moisture and also longer storage. Overdue foodstuff is recognized by decreased vitamin C content in it,

a human has to take vitamin C from food, while animals can produce it themselves (except monkeys and guinea pigs),

ascorbic acid that is vitamin C is a white odorless powder of little sour flavor. Synthetic preparations contain approximately 99% of this acid. It dissolves easily in water and dilute methyl and ethyl alcohol. It does not dissolve in fats and their solvents,

long-lasting aspirin taking triples vitamin C expelling, that is why one should increase doses of this vitamin that time,

thanks its antioxidating properties vitamin C significantly decreases hazard of chronic diseases occurrence such as cancer, heart diseases or cataract. In purpose of optimum reduction of hazard of such diseases occurrence the latest dietetic recommendations suggest consumption even up to 120 mg of this vitamin a day, best originated from vegetables or fruit.

Vitamin H (Biotin)
Function of vitamins:
Biotin that is vitamin H, also called coenzyme R, takes part in synthesis of amino acids, sugars, proteins and fatty acids, supports thyroid gland functions, takes part in transformation of carbon dioxide, influences proper skin and hair functioning, participates with vitamin K in synthesis of prothrombine (responsible for blood coagulation).

Food sources:
Liver, soybean flour, egg yolk, walnut, peanut, almond, sardine, fungus, brown (natural) rice, whole-wheat flour, spinach, crab, carrot, tomato.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of vitamin H (Biotin) in food products is expressed in micrograms [µg]. For this vitamin Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) has been not determined due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Vitamin H (Biotin)*

Life stage group
Vitamin H (Biotin)
Adequate Intake (AIs) – the nutrient intake that appears to sustain defined nutritional states such as normal growth or normal blood levels of the nutrient
[µg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
8
Children 4-8 yr
12
Males 9-13 yr
20
Males 14-18 yr 25
Males 19-30 yr 30
Males 31-50 yr 30
Males 50-70 yr 30
Males > 70 yr 30
Females 9-13 yr
20
Females 14-18 yr 25
Females 19-30 yr 30
Females 31-50 yr 30
Females 50-70 yr 30
Females > 70 yr 30
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 30
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 30
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 30
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 35
Lactation 19-30 yr 35
Lactation 31-50 yr 35

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

intestine bacteria possess ability to form vitamin H,

in dry form biotin is quite durable, but in highly acid and alkaline solutions it loses its biological activity, especially at high temperatures,

vitamin H deficiency hardly occurs, it may be caused only by a diet consisting of 30% and more of hen albumen, because it contains substance called avidin, which bonds vitamin H and because of that deactivates it. Avidin loses its features when albumen will be heated up.

Folic acid (Folate)
Function of vitamins:
Folic acid that is Folate participates in DNA and RNA nucleic acids forming, synthesis of amino acids, purines, pyrimidines, takes part in cell division process, constitutes important function in process of erythrocytes formation (together with vitamin B12), participates as coenzyme in monocarbic rests conveying.

Food sources:
Wheat germs, roughage, baker’s yeast, liver, parsley (leaves and root), pod vegetables, spinach, soybean, egg yolk, natural rice, endive, lettuce, asparagus, lentil, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower.

Nutritional requirements:
The content of Folic acid (Folate) in food products is expressed in micrograms [µg].

Dietary Reference Intakes for various life stage groups – Folic acid (Folate)*

Life stage group
Folic acid (Folate)
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) – The nutrient intake level that meets the nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a life-stage and gender group
[µg / day] Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) – The maximum amount that a person can take without risking adverse health effects
[µg / day]
Children 1-3 yr
150 300
Children 4-8 yr
200 400
Males 9-13 yr
300 600
Males 14-18 yr 400 800
Males 19-30 yr 400 1000
Males 31-50 yr 400 1000
Males 50-70 yr 400 1000
Males > 70 yr 400 1000
Females 9-13 yr
300 600
Females 14-18 yr 400 800
Females 19-30 yr 400 1000
Females 31-50 yr 400 1000
Females 50-70 yr 400 1000
Females > 70 yr 400 1000
Pregnancy ≤ 18 yr 600 800
Pregnancy 19-30 yr 600 1000
Pregnancy 31-50 yr 600 1000
Lactation ≤ 18 yr 500 800
Lactation 19-30 yr 500 1000
Lactation 31-50 yr 500 1000

*(excerpted from Dietary Reference Intakes established by National Academy of Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, USA)

Interesting facts:

it has been concussively proved that occurrence of nervous system congenital anomalies in newborns is conditioned by too low consumption of folic acid by women before getting pregnant and in early stages of pregnancy,

the team of experts of Health Ministry of Poland, according to other countries, advises to every young woman at reproductive age taking 400 µg of folate in a daily diet,

in correlation of the way of meal preparation, to boiling water even up to 90% of folic acid can infiltrate, and this happens because of its perfect solubility. Because of that reason meals should always be cooked with use of minimum of water, relatively it should not be poured out but used to preparation of sauce,

with participation of folic acid so called happiness hormone – serotonin (which acts soothingly and quieteningly) and noradrenaline which is responsible for activity and dynamics during a day),

there are proofs high level of substance called homocysteine in blood increases hazard of heart diseases occurrence. Increased consumption of folate may have significant influence for prevention of heart diseases.

The World Health Organization (WHO) makes the following 5 recommendations with respect to both populations and individuals.

-Achieve an energy balance and a healthy weight
-Limit energy intake from total fats and shift fat consumption away from saturated fats to unsaturated fats and towards the elimination of trans-fatty acids

-Increase consumption of fruits and vegetables, legumes, whole grains and nuts
-Limit the intake of simple sugar. A 2003 report recommends less than 10% simple sugars.
-Limit salt / sodium consumption from all sources and ensure that salt is iodized

Other recommendations include:

Sufficient essential amino acids (“complete protein”) to provide cellular replenishment and transport proteins. All essential amino acids are present in animals. Some plants (such as quinoa, soy and hemp) give all the essential acids. A combination of other plants in a diet may also provide all essential amino acids. Fruits such as avocado and pumpkin seeds also have all the essential amino acids.Essential micronutrients such as vitamins and certain minerals.
Avoiding directly poisonous (e.g. heavy metals) and carcinogenic (e.g. benzene) substances;
Avoiding foods contaminated by human pathogens (e.g. E. coli, tapeworm eggs).

The term health food is generally used to describe foods that are considered to be beneficial to health. However, the term is not precisely defined by national regulatory agencies such as the USDA or the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Health foods are sold in health food stores or in the health/organic sections of supermarkets.

There are a wide variety of diet regimes which are claimed to have an effect on health. The term “health food” can be applied to carnivorous, vegetarian, macrobiotic, vegan, raw (uncooked) and fruitarian diets, amongst others.

Health food labelingWhile there is no precise definition for “health food”, the United States Food and Drug Administration has warned food manufacturers against labeling foods as being “healthy” when they have a high sugar, salt, or fat content.

Specific health food claimsHealth foods are often seen as acting like medicines, in that they are considered to provide specific favorable effects on health. Purported examples of health foods include alfalfa, broccoli, sprouts, wheat germ, and low fat yogurt. In general, however, their claims of health benefits have not been evaluated by national regulatory agencies.

In the United States, the term is often used for foods that are low in fat and/or sugar, since over consumption of fatty and sugary foods is seen as contributing to the obesity epidemic.

Carbohydrates (also saccharides or commonly sugars) are organic compounds – multihydroxide alcohols consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in which hydrogen to oxygen ratio is the same as in water (H2O) so it equals 2:1. Carbohydrates are in all commonly existing plants: cereals, potatoes, pod plants, fruit and also in animal organisms.

Functions of carbohydrates
carbohydrates (sugars) are the cheapest and easiest accessible source of energy which is used first of all to keep constant body temperature, work of internal organs and to execute physical labor, 1 g of carbohydrates releases 4 kcal of energy,

glucose is almost the only energy source for brain and muscles,

carbohydrates allow to economical balance of proteins and fats,

carbohydrates provided in nourishment or synthesized in organism constitute building material for formation of structural elements of cells or biologically active substances (galactose, ribose, galacturonic acid, ammonosugars, acetylated sugars etc),

unprocessed (integrated) carbohydrates play a big role in water-mineral balance decreasing secretion of these ingredients,

carbohydrates participate in build of cell membranes,

some polysaccharides (dietary fiber), although they are not digested and absorbed by human’s organism, play a big role in regulation of digestive system peristalsis.

Nutritional requirements
Carbohydrates (Sugars) should provide 55-60% of energetic value of an adult’s daily nourishing ration. They ought to be complex, unpurified and not-boiled to a pulp carbohydrates.

Recommended daily intake for various life stage groups – Carbohydrates*

Life stage group Carbohydrates
Total
[g] [%] energy from carbo-
hydrates
Children 1-3 yr
165 51
Children 4-6 yr
235 55
Children 7-9 yr
290 55
Males 10-12 yr
370 57
Females 10-12 yr
320 56
Males 13-15 yr 420-470 56-57
Males 16-20 yr 450-545 56-59
Females 13-15 yr 365-400 56-57
Females 16-20 yr 355-390 57-58
Males 21-64 yr, sedentary work 345-385 58-59
Males 21-64 yr, moderate work 400-480 57-60
Males 21-64 yr, hard work 500-600 57-60
Males 21-64 yr, very hard work 575-605 57-60
Females 21-59 yr, sedentary work 300-335 57-58
Females 21-59 yr, moderate work 330-405 55-58
Females 21-59 yr, hard work 400-460 55-57
Pregnancy (II half) 400 57
Lactation 490 58
Males 65-75 yr 335 58
Males > 75 yr 315 60
Females 65-75 yr 320 58
Females > 75 yr 300 60

*(according to Szczygiel A. i inni: Normy zywienia IZZ, zaktualizowane w 1980 r. Zyw. Czlow. i Metab., 10, 2, 143, 1983., Poland)

Classification of carbohydrates, sources, interesting facts
We divide carbohydrates (sugars) into simple, compound low-molecular, compound multimolecular and derived carbohydrates.

Simple carbohydrates – Monosaccharides
Pentoses

Hexoses

Compound low-molecular carbohydrates – Oligosaccharides
Disaccharides

Trisaccharides

Tetrasaccharides

Compound multimolecular carbohydrates – Polysaccharides
Starch group

Cellulose group (indigestible – “dietary fiber”)

Compounds consist of carbohydrates – Derived carbohydrates
Glycosides

Saponins

Tannins

Organic acids

Pentoses
They usually occur in form of polysaccharides or in connection with aglucones. They do not enter the reaction of yeast fermentation.

Arabinose – component of resins and vegetable gums,

Xylose – component of xylan – tree gum,

Ribose – do not appear in elemental state,

Xylulose

Ribulose

Hexoses

Glucose – grape sugar, widespread in nature. It is located in plant juices, especially fruit ones. The amount of glucose in fruit depends on their species and ripeness state. Glucose is a physiological sugar – it is in body fluids. Under influence of yeast it ferments,

Galactose – rarely occurs in elemental state. In plants it occurs first of all in form of galactans (agar), and in animals among other things as an ingredient of milk sugar and cerebrosides.

Mannose – in animal world it is an ingredient of complex polysaccharides which belong to composition of protein simplexes. In plant world it occurs as a hard to digest carbohydrate (some species of nuts and bean). It does not fulfill any significant role in nutrition,

Fructose – fruit sugar, it occurs in fruit, fruit juice, honey. Fructose is 73% sweeter than sucrose (saccharose), it dissolves in water, constitutes flavor in fruit and honey.

Disaccharides

Sucrose (Saccharose) – it consists of glucose and fructose. Saccharose is a perfect preservative for milk and jams because it lowers water activity in these products by what it inhibits mould growth,

Lactose – it consists of glucose and galactose. It occurs in milk and dairy products. In people suffering from handicap of production of lactase (an enzyme which participates in digestion of lactose, organism does not tolerate this sugar) it is recommended for them to consume fermented milk drinks such as e.g. yogurt, kefir in which bacteria of milk acid during fermentation decompose lactose by what they decrease its amount in these products,

Maltose – it consists of 2 molecules of glucose. It occurs in beer and bakery products. Maltose is produced in process of fermentation of cereal grains.

Trisaccharides

Raffinose – it consists of galactose, glucose and fructose,

Melizitose – composed of one fructose unit and two glucose units.

Tetrasaccharides

Stachyose – composed of two galactose units, one glucose unit and one fructose unit.

Starch group

Starch – the main reserve material of plants. It provides almost 25% of total daily energy. Nourishment containing starch gives feeling of satiety and for long reduces hunger. The build of starch grains is diverse and characteristic for particular plants.,

Inulin – occurs in bulbs of dahlia, artichoke, chicory. It consists of fructose. It is a polysaccharide which during digestion, absorption and expelling does not enter any transformation (test sugar),

Glycogen – reserve material of animal organisms and yeast. Muscle glycogen is mainly used to provide energy used for running of muscles. Glycogen in liver is used directly as a source of glucose for brain and erythrocytes. Liver cannot synthetize it. It is decomposed to glucose,

Chitin – polysaccharide built only of N-acetylglucosoamine. It is insensitive to the action of animal and plant enzymes. It constitutes the main supporting and building material of some bacteria, fungus, insects, crustaceans,

Dextrins.

Cellulose group
Cellulose group is commonly called fiber or fibre (dietary fiber or dietary fibre)

Dietary fiber (dietary fibre) insoluble in water (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignins) – it is a part of nourishment which is not digested by our organism, but it is essential; insoluble fibers accelerate chyme passing through intestines, thanks this they support digestion process and prevent constipation. Cellulose is not digested by a human. It belongs to composition of cell walls of plants. It is built of glucose bonded with 1,4-ß-glycosidal bonds. It removes constipation, counteracts formation of digestive tract tumors, lowers glucose level in blood, slows down body mass increment. Hemicelluloses – polysaccharides, insoluble in water. Lignins remove excess of gall acids and cholesterol from digestive tract, prevent formation of gallstones,

Dietary fiber (dietary fibre) soluble in water (mucilages, gums, pectins) – fiber fractions inhibit nourishment passing from stomach to small intestine extending by this way feeling of satiety and allowing to better absorption of some nutrients, these fibers have a form of mucilage which occurs in cell walls of plants. Mucilages have the ability to bond high amounts of water by what they are applied as laxatives (in stomach problems). Gums are wide-used in food production as thickener, they form combination with cellulose resulting in so-called pentocellulose. Pectins are used to production of jams, are soluble in hot water, they consist of arabinose, galactose, galacturonic acid, methanol and acetic acid.

Glycosides
Glycosides are derivatives of sugars. Apart from sugars (most often glucose) the products of decomposition of glycosides are; hydroquinone, purines, methyl ester of salicylic acid, hydrogen cyanide. Glycosides are colorless and bitter in taste, they dissolve in water and alcohol. The most dangerous are glycosides containing hydrogen cyanide which masks respiratory chain at the level of cell. Such glycosides are in oilseed cake, some feeds, stones of bitter almond, plum, apricot, peach.

Saponins
Saponins are amorphous substances soluble in water and strongly decrease surface tension. They increase foaming and stabilize fats that is why sometimes they are used to manufacturing of cold drinks and halvah. Their use is banned in many countries because they cause blood hemolysis, inflammation of ileum. They are also in pod vegetables (antinutritious substances).

Tannins
Tannins are combination of polyphenols and glucose. They occur in coffee and tea, in smaller amounts in fungus. Tannin with salts of heavy metals forms insoluble compounds – so it can decrease absorption of iron, copper etc. With protein it forms insoluble complexes by what it causes inhibition of digestion processes in stomach.

Organic acids
To organic acids belong: malic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, succinic acid. In their build they do not contain nitrogen and with their physical-chemical features they are similar to carbohydrates. They give characteristic flavor and odor to products, they may also be a source of energy. Some organic acids are formed during fermentation of products (souring of cucumbers, cabbage, milk). During combustion of these acids often a base, which participates in keeping of acid-base balance, is separated.

Proteins are fundamental elements of build of all tissues of human’s body and of many compounds such as: enzymes, hormones, antibodies. Proteins regulate processes of metabolism and many body functions, ensuring their correct state and functioning of our body. Appropriate amounts of proteins decide about normal human’s growth, regeneration of expelled or damaged tissues. Proteins are multi-molecular compounds built of amino acids. There are about 22 amino acids, and 8 among them, called indispensable or essential, are included in protein of animal origin which we consume in food. Only some food of plant origin contains the 8 essential amino acids, that is why so relevant is the variety of consumed nourishment.

Functions of proteins
proteins are essential material for building new and reconstruction of used tissues. They occupy the first place among solid ingredients of body-they state 75% of dry matter of soft body tissue,

proteins not used for anabolism are the energy source: combustion of 1 g of protein releases 4 kcal of energy,

proteins are basic ingredient of body liquids: blood, lymph, milk,

organism uses proteins to create protein parts of digesting and tissue enzymes. Shortage of proteins in a diet reverberates after a few days in quantity and activity of enzymes,

proteins are the material for biosynthesis of protein hormones,

proteins are the material for biosynthesis of antibodies,

proteins participate in detoxication of organism.

Nutritional requirements
Proteins should provide 10-14% of energetic value of daily nutritious ration for an adult. It ought to be balanced proteins containing the 8 essential amino acids.

Recommended daily intake for various life stage groups – Proteins* with the assumption of 90% of protein nutritional content

Life stage group
Proteins
Total
[g] [%] energy from proteins
Children 1-3 yr
45 14
Children 4-6 yr
55 13
Children 7-9 yr
65 13
Males 10-12 yr
75 12
Females 10-12 yr
75 13
Males 13-15 yr 95 12-13
Males 16-20 yr 100 11-13
Females 13-15 yr 85 12-13
Females 16-20 yr 80 12-13
Males 21-64 yr, sedentary work 75 11-12
Males 21-64 yr, moderate work 85 11-12
Males 21-64 yr, hard work 95 10-11
Males 21-64 yr, very hard work 100 9-10
Females 21-59 yr, sedentary work 70 12-13
Females 21-59 yr, moderate work 80 11-13
Females 21-59 yr, hard work 90 11-12
Pregnancy (II half) 95 14
Lactation 110 13
Males 65-75 yr 70 12
Males > 75 yr 65 12
Females 65-75 yr 70 13
Females > 75 yr 65 13

*(according to Szczygiel A. i inni: Normy zywienia IZZ, zaktualizowane w 1980 r. Zyw. Czlow. i Metab., 10, 2, 143, 1983., Poland)

Complete protein
It consists of all 8 essential amino acids, in suitable proportion. Such proteins are shortly absorbed in organism and effectively used. Proteins occurring in nourishment of animal origin stand out larger biological value than plant proteins, lacking one or several essential amino acids. An egg white is believed to be the optimum in terms of amino acid composition. Absence of at least a single one indispensable amino acid determines the lack of possibility of protein absorption. To make meals balanced one should match products consisting of part value or not complete protein.

Indispensable amino acids (essential):
valine

leucine

isoleucine

threonine

methionine + cysteine

phenylalanine + tyrosine

tryptophan

lysine

histidine (essential for infants and children)

Dispensable amino acids (non-essential):
alanine

arginine

glycine

asparagine

aspartic acid

glutamic acid

glutamine

cystine

proline

ornithine

serine

Classification of proteins, food sources
Proteins are divided into simple proteins and conjugated proteins

Simple proteins
Albumins

Globulins

Glutelins

Prolamines

Scleroproteins

Histones

Protamines

Conjugated proteins
Chromoproteins

Phosphoproteins

Nucleoproteins

Lipoproteins

Glycoproteins

Metalloproteins

Albumins
Proteins soluble in water and dilute salt solutions. Widely spread in nature: they are in blood serum, lymph, milk, eggs, muscles of vertebrates (myoalbumin, myogen), seeds of pod plants (legumelin in green pea) and cereals (leucosine in barley, rye and wheat).

Globulins
Proteins insoluble in pure water but they dissolve in dilute inert salt solutions. They very easily get denaturated. Blood serum globulins, milk globulin, plasma fibrinogen, muscle myosin, thyroglobulin (thyroid gland hormone), tuberin (from potato) belong to these proteins. To globulins also belong immunity cells (immunoglobulins).

Glutelins
Soluble in dilute solutions of acids and bases, and insoluble in water and salt solutions. They contain significant amounts of amino acid – glutamic acid, glutamine and proline. They occur in seeds of dicotyledons, but in highest amounts in cereal grains (glutelin in wheat).

Prolamines
Prolamins are also called gliadins. They dissolve in 70-80% of alcohols. They occur only in cereal grains.

Scleroproteins
They occur only in animal organisms, mainly in supporting and protective tissues. First of all here belong proteins of connective tissue (collagen, elastin), hair and horny parts (keratin). They dissolve neither in water nor in dilute solutions of acids and lyes. Scleroproteins are resistant to the action of proteolistic enzymes of human’s digestive system.

Histones
Alkaline proteins of nuclei in which they occur in connection with nucleic acids, forming nucleoproteins. Histones are well soluble in water and dilute solutions of acids.

Protamines
Strongly alkaline proteins. They occur in fish sperm where they form connections with nucleic acids. They do not contain sulfuric amino acids (methionine, cysteine), are well soluble in solutions of acids.

Chromoproteins
Consisted of simple proteins and prosthetic group – dye. Hemoproteins (hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes, catalase, peroxidase) containing heme system and flavoproteins belong to them.

Phosphoproteins
They contain about 1% of phosphorus in form of phosphoric acid radicals. Milk casein, egg yolk vitellin and spawn ichthyoline belong to these proteins.

Nucleoproteins
They consist of alkaline proteins and nucleids acids. Ribonucleoproteins are mainly located in cytoplasm: in ribosomes, microsomes and mitochondria, in small amount also in nuclei, and beyond nucleus only in mitochondria. Viruses are built almost only from nucleoproteins.

Lipoproteins
Connection of proteins with simple or complex fats, steroids. Lipoproteins are cholesterol (LDL, HDL, VLDL) carriers.

Glycoproteins
Sugars constitute prosthetic group, inter alia mucopolysaccharides (saliva) belong to them. Glycoproteins also occur in eye substance and fluid of articular capsules.

Metalloproteins
They contain metal atoms (copper, zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium) as prosthetic group. Metal atoms constitute active group of many enzymes.

Interesting facts
high consumption of proteins leads to bigger calcium losses,

vegetables contain much water, in consequence they take much room in digestive system. With relatively low protein content they are not relevant source of amino acids,

low protein content in a diet leads to malnutrition – a state which slows down the process of organism growth, muscle build, energy reserves accumulation, disturbances in bowel running (absorption handicap) and increase of risk of infecting diseases and sometimes allergy,

cereals are relatively poor in protein (8-14%) in comparison to other products from our diet. They are rich in very valuable sulphuric amino acids (their composition contains sulphur) but on the other hand they are deficient in lysine – an amino acid essential for correct growth of babies and children. However, because of high level of consumption of cereal products, their participation in recommended intake of protein is very important,

connection of cereal products with pod or milk ones in one meal may cover the demand for essential amino acids. It is very important, because such connections of products are recommended as the example in developed countries (e.g. cereal + milk) and in developing ones (soybean + rice, soybean + sweat corn, bean + wheat),

when human’s body loses more than 14% of total protein amount in organism, it leads to serious disorders, what realizes us the relevance of this nutrient in a diet. Only water is more relevant than protein for our life (loss of just 8% of water may turn disastrous in results). The opposite to such losses and consequences for human’s life is fat, because loss even up to 90% of fat tissue may affect our health only marginally,

the sources of animal protein occur in products always in connection with animal fat (e.g. meat, cheese) and due to it, this kind of nutritious protein tends to increase the level of cholesterol in blood and rise cholesterol production by organism. The reason of that state are fats rich in saturated fat acids, which are for instance responsible for the production of bad cholesterol,

products rich in animal proteins are frequently the carriers of different mineral constituents e.g. calcium in milk, iron and zinc in red meat,

seeds of leguminous plants are rich in protein (25-40%), but its amino acid composition is not so good as in amino acid protein (they contain little amino acids so-called sulphuric). The exception constitutes soybean. However, the connection of seeds of pod and cereal plants in a diet may provide appropriate amount of all amino acids essential to correct growth of organism and upkeep of health,

nuts contain much proteins. They are consumed in too little quantities and that is why they are not perceived as its important source.